* Archaeologists long believed that Japan had no prehistoric culture; however, excavations conducted since end of WWII have unearthed Paleolithic chipped-stone tools (but no human remains).
* Paleolithic peoples followed by two Neolithic cultures:
1) Jomon culture (c. 5000 B.C. - c. 250 B. C.): remains show characteristic Neolithic progression from chipped to polished tools and manufacture of pottery, the latter highly developed. Jomon culture spread slowly throughout all Japanese islands, with different regions manufacturing different kinds of pottery.
2) Yayoi culture (c. 250 B. C. - c. AD 250): A notable cultural advance over Jomon. Began in Kyushu (southernmost of four main islands) during Jomon period and spread eastward. Displaced Jomon until it reached northern Honshu (largest island). Some scholars suggest this culture was imported by Mongol invaders/immigrants, but theory is highly controversial.
--Yayoi culture made great strides in manufacture of pottery--practical pieces turned on wheel, fired at hotter temperatures, and with less decoration than that of Jomon.
--Yayoi culture characterized by production of iron and bronze weapons and implements and wet cultivation of rice. These two features suggest beginning of strong Chinese influence (Ch'in and Han dynasties) filtered through Chinese colonies in Korea.
--Excavations have unearthed remains of paddy fields and complex irrigation systems associated with cultivation of rice--one of most important features of Yayoi culture.
--Built mostly on low-lying ground near fields and canals, Yayoi settlements consist of pit-type and surface dwellings. Granaries also appear during this period (indicate crop surpluses).
--Another important feature of Yayoi culture: manufacture of cloth, woven on primitive looms from plant fibers.
--Dead buried either in large clay urns or heavy stone coffins. This, and presence of stone structures (dolmens) over some grave sites, also signals Chinese influence. In addition, some graves are set apart from other groupings and filled with precious artifacts--scholars believe that this suggests a classed society.
--Some experts suggest that Yayoi culture was the result of large Mongolian invasion/immigration from across Korean Strait during 2nd and 1st centuries B. C. Invaders brought with them the wet cultivation of rice, the methods for weaving cloth, and the process for smelting and forging iron into crude tools and weapons (a highly disputed theory).
--Another theory postulates a second invasion across the Korean Strait by fierce Mongol horsemen c. AD 250. Fighting in iron armor and wielding superior iron weapons, these warlike invaders may have established themselves as an aristocracy (possible origin of Samurai--warrior cult).
--After a few generations, this theory suggests, one of these noble families took precedence over the others and established Japan's Imperial family.
--A Japanese myth says that the first member of this Imperial family was the grandson of Amaterasu, the Sun-Goddess. Sent down from Heaven to establish order in Japan, he brought with him three precious gifts from the gods--a curved jewel, a sword, and a sacred mirror--the Emperor's regalia.
--One of this divine grandchild's human descendants was Jimmu Tenno, half- legendary first Emperor of Japan, who enlarged the state and founded a capital near present-day Osaka before AD 400 (archaeological evidence seems partially to support this legend). This era becomes known as the Yamato period of Japanese history.
--Even at this early date, the Emperor is relegated to a unique role in Japanese society.
--Emperor is of supreme importance as a religious symbol--he is venerated as a god, but he possesses almost no real power.
--Real ruler was an official somewhat like a warlord/prime minister (later known as shogun). Clan leaders warred with each other to attain this position of ultimate authority. Victor often decided which prince of Imperial family would succeed to the throne. Soga family was first clan to win control of the court. They cemented their position by marrying generations of daughters into the Imperial line.
--But the Imperial family was never displaced by a shogun--religious symbolism of ruler too important. Only an authentic member of the Imperial family, descended from the sun-goddess, could be regarded as divine and could intercede with heaven on behalf of human beings.
* Chinese historical records from the Han Dynasty (206 B. C. - AD 220)
refer to Japan as the country of "Wo, divided into more than 100 states."
According to this work, the Wei Chih (Chinese Chronicles),
more than 30 Japanese states had been united by a sorceress-queen named
Pimiko, who presided over a complex culture and established diplomatic relations
with the Wei Dynasty in China (AD 220 - 264).
* Chinese historical notations about relations with Japan continue until
AD 266, after which time mention of Japan does not reappear until 413.
* Next mention of Japan is in Korean court records, which detail a great
war on the Korean peninsula between Japan and several Korean kingdoms, which
Japan subjugates some time in 4th - 5th centuries. These records suggest
that Japan had been unified sometime earlier (probably near the middle of
the 4th century) under the strong leadership of the Yamato.
* Tribute from Korean subjects enriched Yamato court, which reached its
zenith in the early 5th century. Chinese technical advisers and scholars
migrated to the Yamato Court, bringing the Chinese script and Confucian
works. Japanese students were also sent to China to study. During this period,
Chinese influence escalates.
* But Yamato Court falls into rapid decline shortly thereafter for several
reasons:
1) loses control of Korean territories;
2) Chinese emperors refuse to grant Japan's request for military hegemony over Korea (Yamato Court sends envoys to Han emperors at least three times between 421- 502);
3) some leaders of powerful clans making up royal court and some allied chieftains begin to renounce allegiance to Emperor;
4) struggle within Imperial family for control of throne.
* Nevertheless, a major cultural event occurs during twilight years of
Yamato Court-- Introduction of Buddhism to Japan.
--In AD 552 ruler of Paekche (Korean ally of Japan) appeals for Yamato help against its enemies. Along with his emissaries to Yamato court, Korean king sends bronze image of Buddha, some Buddhist scriptures, and a letter praising Buddhism. These gifts triggered powerful burst of Japanese interest in Buddhism.
--Iname (the Soga shogun/minister) viewed Buddhism as a convenient vehicle for importing Chinese culture--the Japanese were awed by the highly civilized Han Dynasty, which was shaping China into a great nation.
--Iname also hoped to import elaborate, orderly Chinese political system and theory of government, which emphasized a strong central bureaucracy in the hands of powerful ministers.
--His policies precipitated 50 years of struggle between the supporters of Buddhism and those Japanese clans wishing to retain Shinto, the native religion (mostly involved the worship of natural forces/powers and sacred natural sites).
--Eventually, Buddhism won out, and Iname's son, Umako, imports Chinese books and scholars, sends embassies and students to China, and encourages founding of Buddhist temples, monasteries, and convents.
--In AD 593 Umako selects Crown Prince Shotoku as regent for his aunt, the Empress Suiko. Strongly supporting his minister's policies, the Prince revivified the Yamato court/family.
--During Shotoku's regency (593-622), Chinese culture, customs, and etiquette flooded into Japan. Shotoku organized the royal court into 12 ranks, established a Constitution, opened relations with China's Sui Dynasty, and fostered the spread of Buddhism by basing his ideal theories of government on Buddhism's teachings about peace and salvation.
--After Shotoku died in AD 622, the Soga family gradually regained power until 643, when it slaughtered Shotoku's son and all his family. This touched off a bloody civil war among the clans.
--In AD 645 Prince Nakano (a surviving member of the Imperial family) and a clan chief (ancestor of the Fujiwara family, that would dominate the Emperor's ministries for centuries) brought about a coup that drove the Soga family from power.
--In a series of monumental changes known as the Taika Reforms, the new Emperor created a centralized government with the Emperor as absolute ruler. He also severely limited the power of wealthy clan families by a law which abolished their private ownership of land and men. Now owning the land, the state redistributed it among its subjects, who payed a fixed property tax. He also instituted provisions for a governmental structure, including a capital city, local bureaucracies, and defense and communications networks.
* The next two Emperors--Tenji and Temmu--withdrew permanently from political
activity on the Korean peninsula and concentrated on domestic affairs, particularly
on codifying the Taika Reforms and translating them into a real political
structure--known as ritsu-ryo (a two-part structure, in which one
arm focuses on criminal codes and the other on administrative and civil
codes). This system partially imitated the system in T'ang China.
* By AD 710, when the Imperial capital was moved to Nara, Japan had a
complex, efficient, and smoothly running government.
* During the Nara period (710-784), Buddhist culture reached a high point
in Japan, fostered by the Emperor Shomu and his Imperial Consort, Komyo.
--Convinced of his obligation to promote peace and stability so that his subjects could live happy, productive lives, the Emperor joined Buddhist thought with secular government.
--Modeling on the political infrastructure, the Emperor founded Buddhist temples, monasteries, and convents in each province. Each group was to be responsible for attending to the spiritual needs of area residents.
--In addition, the Emperor had a monumental temple constructed in the capital city. Installed within was a huge statue of Buddha, to be honored as the supreme guardian deity of the nation. (The Great Buddha of Nara still stands today and is often regarded as one of the great wonders of the ancient world).
--The flowering of culture in Japan was natural outcome of its ties to other Asian civilizations--especially, China, Korea, and India. Despite such international influences, however, Japan continued to honor its traditional ways.
--Such reverence for its own culture is demonstrated by the Man'yoshu (c. 8th century AD), a poetry anthology that presents intimate glimpses into life on every level of Japanese society. Including over 4,500 poems from both ancient times and its own age, the Man'yoshu has profoundly influenced all Japanese culture down to the present day.