HANDBOOK FOR THE STUDY OF EASTERN LITERATURES

ANCIENT INDIA

by

Dr. Robert Churchill

Creighton University

Prehistory

* Earliest periods of Indian civilization known only through scholarly reconstructions based on archaeological evidence.

* Oldest artifacts yet found on Indian subcontinent have been dated from Lower (or Early) Paleolithic period--c. 2.6 million years ago to 200,000 years before the present. So far, no prehistoric human remains have been discovered.

• Discovered in hilly region of what is now northern Pakistan, these quartzite pebble tools and flakes date from about two million years ago. These artifacts represent a pre-hand-axe level of technology that apparently persisted for eons afterward.
• Earliest hand-axes found in same area date from approximately 500,000 years ago.
• Similar tools, discovered in Great Indian Desert (along what is now southern half of India-Pakistan border, and south of former site), date from about 400,000 years ago.
• Geological samples indicate this desert region once had humid climate that produced lush, rich environment for hunting (from 140,000 to 25,000 years ago--during most of Middle-Paleolithic period).
• Middle-Paleolithic sites discovered where Indus River meets this desert provide evidence of major factory centers for manufacturing stone tools and weapons made of chert.
• Between 40,00 and 25,000 years ago (onset of Upper [or Late] Paleolithic period), same region gradually changed into more arid climate.
• This stage of technology marked by gradual diminution in size of hand implements during Middle and Late Paleolithic periods.

* By Mesolithic Period (c. 12,000 to 8,000 years ago), small parallel-sided blades and microliths (tiny, geometrically-shaped blade-tools) are characteristic artifacts.

* Great proliferation of cultures over enormous time span is evident throughout India in Mesolithic period--from 30,000 years ago in Sri Lanka to 15,000-10,000 years ago in hills of northern Afghanistan.

• These different cultures exhibited a wide variety of subsistence patterns; hunting/gathering, fishing, even some herding and small-scale agriculture (domestication of wild sheep/goats probably began in Afghanistan c. 15,000 years ago).

* During late-20th century, major sites of Neolithic Indian culture (c. 10000-5000 B.C.) have been discovered and excavated in Indus River valley and along India's border with Iran, a broad plain which provided a natural passageway through the mountains to the Middle East.

* Ancient commerce and communication among India, Egypt, and Mesopotamia are proven by recovered artifacts and suggested by parallel developments in all three civilizations.

*Group of Neolithic sites recently excavated at Mehrgarh (in what is now central Pakistan) provides evidence of occupation for over six thousand years, covering two major periods:

• I. 8000-6000 B.C.--early agricultural settlement with domestic architecture and variety of crafts.
  • IA. 8000-7000 B.C.: first phase lacked pottery; people used mostly stone blades, a few ground-stone hand-axes; wheat, barley--staple crops; domesticated sheep and goats; agriculture supplemented by hunting; mud-brick huts; simple burial rituals.
  • IB. 7000-6000 B.C.: pottery appears during second phase; domestic cattle replace game animals, shhep, and goats; granaries appear (indicate crop surpluses); more elaborate burial rituals; human figurines modeled in clay.
• II. 5000-3000 B.C.--c. 5500 B.C., a major geologic event took place (earthquake, flood, or shift of tectonic plates)--original site almostcompletely buried in silt.
  • Original culture persisted, but with alterations: increased use of pottery; granaries larger/more numerous; appearance of several new crafts--use of copper and ivory; size of settlement enlarged.

* Other sites comparable to Mehrgarh in age and level of development are believed to exist in same general area (Indo- Iranian borderlands, Baluchistan).

* Other areas of India also show evidence of early habitation: In northern parts of Indus system, earliest settlements date from 4000 B. C. Some settlements almost 7,000 years old have been discovered in hills to south of the Ganges Valley. The southern peninsula has yielded artifacts from 3000 B. C.

* From c. 5000 B.C. many settlements appear along Indo-Iranian borderlands--village communities of settled farmers who raised cattle, sheep, and goats, and grew wheat and barley. Their technology featured use of stone, as well as some copper and bronze. Each village produced distinctive high-quality pottery.

* By middle of 4th millenium B. C., such agricultural communities had spread to Indus Valley proper. Archaeological evidence suggests that, for more than 500 years, there was much interaction between these new settlements and those lying farther west. Scholars believe that this marks a transitional stage between earlier Neolithic cultures and urban civilizations that developed in Mohenjo-daro and Harappa c. 2600 B. C. This transitional culture known as "Early Harappan."

• Early Harappan began c. 3000 B.C. and continued until about 2600 B. C., when it was replaced by mature Indus Civilization. Early Harappan sites dispersed over wide area--from Indus delta to its source, through most of Pakistan and a large part of northcentral India.
• Several of the sites were large, mud-brick-walled towns, with streets laid out in rectangular grid pattern.
• Evidence suggests that means of subsistence for Early Harappan culture much same as for Mehrgarh 2,000 years earlier--cattle, sheep, and goats were primary domesticated animals, while wheat and barley made up the staple crops. Stone and copper were the main tool-making materials.
• Pieces of pottery recovered appear to be incised with marks that may be a primitive written language. And some of decorations on pottery--especially animal forms--seem to be used as religious symbols.

* All this archaeological evidence suggests that perhaps 4,000 to 5,000 years of settled agricultural life paved the way for the emergence of Indus civilization about 2600 B.C.

History

* Thus, between 2600-2500 B. C., a mature Indus civilization emerged and flourished until about 1700 B. C. along the banks of Indus River.

• Four major cities excavated so far: Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal.
• Level of culture equivalent to contemporary civilizations in Mesopotamia and Egypt (probably trade/commerce among these three).
• Archaeological remains suggest highly centralized political structure, probably a priest-king state rather than military empire.

* Civilization destroyed by invasions from NW by light-skinned Aryans (Indo-Europeans), beginning in about 2000 B.C.

• Aryan invaders probably possessed different religious system and priesthood; thus, worked to obliterate aboriginal belief. Indus culture thus destroyed forever, once social glue (religion/priesthood) wiped out.

* Immediate aftermath of Aryan invasions probably a heroic age comparable to Mycenean age in Greek history (Time of Iliad, Odyssey).

* Mahabharata--great epic of India--centers around war between two rival factions of noble charioteers.

• Like warfare in Iliad, war in Mahabharata is affair of heroic individual combat, in which Gods occasionally become involved (Bhagavad Gita) --taking on human form and advising/assisting favorites.
• Mahabharata thus reflects aristocratic, warlike, barbarous age.

* About 8th C. B.C., however, centralized monarchies begin to dominate political scene; and, by 6th c. B.C., nobly born charioteers of heroic age had lost their supremacy. warfare now matter of iron weapons, infantry/cavalry forces.

* By 800 B.C.--large-scale clearing of jungle for agriculture

• Irrigation projects undertaken on Ganges plain
• Trade/manufacture grow in importance
• Overseas commerce reestablished with Babylonia.

* By 6th century B.C., monarchies control most of Northern India; center of political power moves eastward--from Indus to Ganges river.

* Old Aryan tribal-aristocratic unity melts away; society somewhat levelled.

Levelling spurs development of caste system:

(1) Light-skinned Aryans wished to remain separated from darker aboriginies;

(2) Vedas urged ceremonial purity; forbade touching persons/things "unclean";

(3) Aryan prejudice encouraged non-Aryan solidarity/pride;

(4) Brahmanic religion believed in 4 castes:

(a) Brahmins--priests

(b) Kshatriyas--nobles/warriors Aryans

(c) Vaisyas--professions/gainfully employed

(d) Sudras--lowest/peasants Non-Aryans

Caste system firmly in place after 500 B.C.

* Indian Religion develops in Four Stages:

(1) Rig-Vedas--aboriginal, pre-Aryan beliefs. Gods ill-defined = personifications of natural forces/phenomena; powerful, sometimes capricious. Vedas mostly hymns to these deities.

• With Aryan invasions, Vedic gods become less important; gods actually become servants of priests/Brahmins skilled in performance of elaborate rituals/ceremonies.

(2) Brahmanas--scholarly commentaries on Vedas which raised Brahmins and their rituals to a hereditary, closed, and privileged caste. Priests became only ones fit and learned enough to offer gods correct sacrifice.

• By 6th century B.C., however, ascetic hermits were rebelling against religious monopoly of Brahmins and sought enlightenment on their own in jungle retreats.

(3) Upanishads--result of ascetic rebellion. Commentaries that reject sacrifice and priestly offices. Declare that goal of religious life is "enlightenment" = attainable only through individual effort to master secret knowledge, not through correct performance of ritual acts. Knowledge comes through individual work/discipline rather than through sacrifice of priests. Result of individual's work = enlightenment = an individual mystical experience.

• Upanishads contain many of key concepts that later evolve into Hinduism (Brahman, Atman, Karma--see Hindu Cosmology).
• Upanishads suggest that final/perfect end of religious striving may be attained without aid of priests, sacrifices, rituals, or any overt action.
• Brahmins soon saw benefit of incorporating these theories into developing doctrine of Hinduism.
• Upanishads represent radical shift in direction of Indian religion:
  • Vedic religion--earthly aims: prosperity, health, long life are rewards for good relations with the Gods.
  • Brahmanism--also promised earthly rewards plus a suggestion that carefully performed sacrifices might secure reincarnation in an immortal body.
  • Upanishads--disdained earthly pleasures; proclaimed personal annihilation in universal Brahman religion's supreme goal; other-worldly reward.
  • This radical religious shift probably best explained by political and social chaos/instability (700-500 B.C.).

(4) Buddhism - Jainism (reform movements)

• Both faiths held out hope for salvation without resort to priest/sacrifice.
• Both centered around groups of energetic seekers after enlightenment ("monks").
• Monks attracted followers, whose obligations were less demanding.
• Both groups took reincarnation as universal principle and sought to escape from cycle of birth/death through correct knowledge/conduct.
• Both systems atheistic.

*Jainism, however, considers Atman a permanent entity.

• Jainists believe in ascetic practices as principal means of releasing soul from karma. Jainists also uphold principle of non-violence (Ahimsa).

*Buddhism denies permanence of Atman and of everything in physical world.

• advances "Middle Way"--quiet, moderate life of contemplation, religious discussion, and self-control--as true path to religious enlightenment.
• Buddha's central ideas: all life involves suffering; correct knowledge and good habits of life can overcome suffering; way to obtain release is through following "Noble Eightfold Path."
• Buddha presents a practically organized pursuit of holiness in this world.
  

To: Hindu Cosmology