Marie de France (late 12th c.)

• earliest French woman poet, probably active in England
  
  
• perhaps a half sister of Henry II ((r. 1154-1189)
  
  
• lai, poetic and musical form popular among the poets (trouvères) of northern France; long poems with rhymed stanzas of 6-16 lines, 4-8 syllables/line
  
  
• Breton lai (or lay) short, rhymed romance supposedly practiced by Breton storytellers; elements of the supernatural, chivalry, influence of classical and Celtic mythology (land of faerie)
  
  
• Lais of Marie de France (c. 1160), twelve verse narratives in French (Anglo-Norman) language; octosyllabic couplets; dedicated to the "noble" king (likely Henry II)
  
  
• romantic and magical situations, themes, and imagery; variations on theme of lovers in hostile world, oppressive marriages and social conventions (conflicts between love, chivalry and marriage); emphasis on freedom of desire; personal, psychological, and affective issues; love as escape from oppressive world; problems of love (treachery, selfishness) also considered; ambiguous moral messages
  
  
  • Guigemar, about Guigemar, son of Oridial, vassal of King Hoel of Britanny; Guigemar is excellent knight but indifferent to love; he tries to kill a white hind during a hunt but the arrow rebounds and wounds him; hind curses him to remain wounded until cured by a woman's love; the hero journeys by ship to a remote land where an old king is married to a beautiful young woman whom he guards jealously; the lady agrees to treat Guigemar's wound and the two fall in love; exchange of tokens of fidelity (the lady makes a knot with his shirt and he gives her a kind of chastity belt); the lovers are discovered and Guigemar is sent away; the lady goes in search of him but becomes captive of Lord Meriaduc; the lovers recognize each other by the tokens; Guigemar attacks Meriaduc and kills him and is reunited with his beloved
    
    
  • Equitan, about Equitan, king of Nauns; the king's seneschal is married to a beautiful woman; Equitan falls in love with the lady and they become lovers; he promises never to marry anyone unless her husband dies and she's available; she plans to kill her husband, with Equitan's help, in a tub of boiling bath water; the seneschal catches Equitan and his wife in bed; Equitan accidentaly jumps into the tub of hot water and dies; the seneschal throws his wife into the tub and she dies also
    
    
  • Le Fresne ("The Ash Tree"), a knight and his wife have twin sons; the wife of a neighbor knight becomes jealous and spreads rumors that the woman has twins because she has slept with two men; the jealous woman eventually becomes pregnant and also has twin daughters and wants to kill one of them to avoid disgrace; one of the woman's attendants agrees instead to take away one of the babies; the baby is wrapped in a silk robe and a ruby set in gold is tied to it with a ribbon; the attendant takes the baby far away and leaves her in the branches of an ash tree near an abbey; the abbess takes in the child, names her "Fresne," and raises her pretending she is her niece; the girl grows up and becomes a beautiful woman; Lord Gurun falls in love with her and becomes a benefactor of the abbey; Gurun and the girl become lovers and she goes to live with him; Gurun is persuaded by others to take a wife and he agrees; Gurun becomes engaged to Codre ("Hazel") who, without anyone knowing, happens to be Fresne's twin sister; the wedding takes place; Fresne becomes the servant of Codre and dutifully arranges the bridal bed spreading over it the silk cloth in which she had been wrapped as an infant; the mother recognizes the cloth and Fresne as her daughter; the marriage to the sister is dissolved; Gurun marries Fresne
    
    
  • Bisclaveret ("The Werewolf"), a nobleman is married to a lovely lady; he is in the habit of disappearing for three days every week which greatly distresses his wife; she wants to know what he does but he refuses to tell her; she insists; he gives in and reveals to her that he is a werewolf and spends time in the woods hunting in the form of a wolf; in order to return to his human shape, he needs his clothes; the lady extracts from him the secret of where he hides the clothes; she then plans to get rid of him and takes a lover to help her in the task; she sends her lover to steal her husband's clothes so he has to remain in the forests as a wolf; the lady marries her lover; after a year the king goes hunting and has mercy on a wolf he is about to kill; the wolf follows the king; one day at court the wolf sees his former wife's new husband and attacks him; the man is saved but everyone is very suprised by the animal's behavior; on another occasion, the wolf's former wife comes to the king and the wolf sees and attacks her also, tearing off her nose; the king arrests the wife and her husband and tortures them until they reveal the truth about the wolf; the clothes are brought to the wolf who changes back to his human shape; the lady and her husband are exiled to a faraway place where they have many noseless children
    
    
  • Lanval, King Arthur distributes presents, lands, and wives to his barons but neglects to reward the loyal Lanval; Lanval is depressed and in financial straits; lost in thought he goes off to the countryside and reaches a stream where he meets two lovely ladies who lead him to their mistress who is beautiful and rich; Lanval becomes her lover; she requires however that he keep their relationship secret or lose her forever; from then on Lanval is able to meet his lover whenever he wants and lives in luxury; Queen Guinevere makes a pass at Lanval who rejects her; angry, she accuses him of homosexuality; Lanval defends himself by boasting about the extreme beauty of his lover and points out that even her servants are more beautiful than the queen; even angrier, the queen tells the king that Lanval tried to seduce her and insulted her; the king demands that be put on trial; distressed, Lanval call his lover but she doesn't come; Lanval is brought to court; the barons are divided as to what to do; then it is agreed that Lanval must prove the truth of his boasts;suddently two girls, attendants of Lanval's lover and more beautiful than anyone had ever seen, appear and request that preparations be made for the arrival of their mistress; two more and also very beautiful ladies arrive and also request preparations for the arrival of their mistress; Lanval's lady finally arrives to the awe of all those present who must admit she is the most beautiful woman in the world; the lady announces she has been the lover of Lanval and that the queen lied, and requests that he be acquitted; Lanval is set free and he leaves with the lady for the island of Avalon and is never heard from again
    
    
  • Les Deus Amanz ("The Two Lovers"), the king of the Pistrians has a beautiful daughter but refuses to let her marry anyone unless her suitor can carry her in his arms, without resting, all the way up a very high mountain; may try but fail; the son of a count falls in love with the girl and became her lover in secret; he asks her to run away with him but she refuses because she doesn't want to upset her father; the girl however makes arrangements to have her lover get a strength potion to help him carry out the feat required by her father; the young man gets the potion and a date is set for the trial; the girl prepares herself by trying to lose as much weight as possible and wears very little clothing on the day of the climb; the young man gives her the potion bottle to hold; he takes her half way up the mountain and begins to grow weak; she wants him to drink the potion but, out of pride, he refuses; in spite of her repeated pleas, he doesn't drink the potion and reaches the top of the mountain and dies there, exhusted; heartbroken, the girl dies by her lover's side, everyone grieves greatly and the two young lovers are buried on the mountain's top
    
    
  • Yonec, an old, rich man marries a young, beautiful lady and locks her up to keep her away from everyone; the lady is imprisoned for about seven years, guarded by the husband's old sister; the lady is very sad, withering away, and wants to die; one day a hawk flies into her chamber and is transformed into a handsome and courteous young knight; the knight advises her to pretend to feel ill and call for a priest; the two of them lie together in bed and then he takes on the lady's shape and receives communion from the priest; the lovers spend more time together and then the knight leaves, promising to return whenever the lady desires; she calls him back very often and is happy and glowing; her husband becomes suspicious; he arranges to have his old sister hide herself and find out what the lady is doing when alone; the old woman witnesses the encounter of the lovers and the young man's transformations from man into bird; the old woman tells the husband what's occurring and he devises a trap for the hawk, setting up sharpened spikes by the window; the next day the hawk is fatally wounded while trying to fly into the lady's chamber; he comforts the lady telling her she will soon give birth to his son whom she is to name Yonec and who will avenge the lovers; the knight leaves; the lady follows his track of blood; she goes into a hill and reaches a meadow and then a city made of silver; she enters the city and then a palace where she finds two knights sleeping on beds and then finds her lover who embraces her and the two lament their misfortune; he tells her he will die soon and advises her to go away; he gives her a magical ring that will cause her husband to forget what happened; he also gives her his sword to pass on to their son; she returns home and gives birth to Yonec; Yonec eventually learns the tragic story of his father; the lady gives Yonec his father's sword, then faints and dies; Yonec cuts off his stepfather's head; Yonec becomes king of his father's people
    
    
  • Laüstic ("The Nightingale"), two knights live next door to each other at Saint Malo; one is married, the other is not; the bachelor knight loves his neighbor's wife and she loves him too; they keep their love secret from others for a while; they see and talk to each other from their windows; the husband grows suspicious and questions the lady; she tells him that she loves the song of the nightingale and that is why she gets up in the middle of the night and goes to the window; her husband is angry and determined to catch the nightingale; the servants capture the nightingale and the husband kills it and throws the body of the bird to the lady; she wraps the dead bird in cloth and send it to her lover with an account of what had happened; he puts the bird in a gold vessel, seals it, and carries it with him from then on
    
    
  • Milun, Milun is a matchless knight from South Wales, no one can defeat him; a lady falls in love with him and informs him of the fact; they become lovers; the lady becomes pregnant but is very distressed about losing her reputation and being punished; when the child is born they secretly send him to Northumbria to be raised by an older sister of the lady; the child bears with him Milun's ring and a letter which are to inform him of his identity when he grows up; the sister receives the child and the tokens very happily; Milun devotes himself to martial exploits while his lady is given away in marriage to another; Milun is disheartened but devises a way to communicate with his lady by means of a messenger swan; the swan, bearing a letter from Milun, is delivered to the lady; they exchange letters in this way for twenty years; meanwhile, their son grows up and becomes a knight and is given the Milun's ring and the letter revealing his origins and identity; he goes away in search of adventure and soon becomes famous as "the knight without equal"; Milun, not knowing this is his son, hears his fame and decides he must fight him; eventually the two meet at a tournament; Milun is unhorsed by his son who, however, treats him with great courtesy; Milun recongnizes the ring on his son's finger and the two are reunited; meanwhile the lady's husband dies and Milun rushes to her side and the two are married and live happily ever after
    
    
  • Chaitivel ("The Unfortunate One" or "The Four Sorrows"), a beautiful lady is pursued by four suitors; she does not want to discourage any of them; she gives them each love tokens and keeps them ignorant about each other; a tournament is called; three of the lovers are killed during the tournament and one survives; the lady is heartbroken and has the dead buried and the survivor treated by doctors; the lady cannot be consoled and composes a lai which she calls "The Four Sorrows"; the surviving knight wants it called "The Unfortunate One" because the lady does not grant him her love; she agrees to name the lai as he suggests
    
    
  • Chevrefoil ("Honeysuckle"), King Mark exiles his nephew Tristan because of Tristan's love for Mark's wife Queen Iseult; Tristan goes to his native South Wales and stays there for a year; he is sad and eventually decides to go back to Cornwall in search of Iseult; Tristan hears Mark and Iseult are to go to Tintagel for the Pentecost feast; Tristan hides in the woods by the road where Iseult is to travel; he cuts a hazel tree and carves his name on it with a knife; he intends for Iseult to see the sign and know of his suffering for her love; Tristan and Iseult are said to be like the honeysuckle that entwines itself around the hazel tree--the two survive together but die if separated; Iseult rides along the road and sees and recognizes Tristan's sign; she orders her men to stop and she goes into the woods and meets Tristan; she promises him that he is to be reconciled with Mark; they separate and weep; Tristan then composes the lai called Chevrefoil ("goat's leaf")
    
    
  • Eliduc (or "Guildeluec and Guilliadun), Eliduc, a worthy knight living in Brittany, is married to the virtuous Guildeluec; he is forced to abandon his homeland because of the attacks of others who are envious of his virtues and slander him before his lord; promising to be faithful, he leaves his wife in Brittany and travels to England where he helps a king who is having trouble with a peer who wants to marry his daughter; Eliduc sets up an ambush and takes several prisoners from among the king's enemies; the king loves Eliduc and keeps him for a year; the king's daughter, Guilliadun, is very lovely and summons Eliduc to her side; she falls in love with Eliduc and sends him love tokens, a ring and a belt; Eliduc takes the presents but is troubled because of his promise of fidelity to his wife; Guilliadun makes full confession of her love for him and he accepts it but doesn't tell her about his wife; meanwhile his former lord, the king of Brittany, is having trouble with his enemies and sends messengers to Eliduc asking him to return and help him; Eliduc is distressed at having to abandon Guilliadun; Eliduc announces his intention to leave; she faints; he promises to return to her at an appointed time; Eliduc goes back to his homeland and his wife but can't stop thinking about Guilliadun; he helps the king of Brittany solve his problems and sails back to England; he arrives secretly and sends a messenger to Guilliadun; she slips away from her father's home and joins Eliduc who is hiding in the woods; they go back to his ship and sail away; when they are nearing Brittany a storm breaks out; one of the sailors says the cause of the storm is Eliduc's betrayal of his wife and asks him to throw Guilliadun into the ocean; Guilliadun faints at finding out that Eliduc is married; Eliduc is furious and throws the sailor overboard; they disembark in Brittany; believing her dead, Eliduc takes the unconscious Guilliadun to a hermit's chapel for burial; he decides to delay the burial and seek advice from others; Guilliadun is laid on a bed; Eliduc goes to his castle but his wife notices he is visibly unhappy; Guildeluec has Eliduc followed and finds out about Guilliadun's body in the chapel; Guildeluec is distressed at the sad fate of Guilliadun and her own loss of Eliduc's love; while she is mourning a weasel runs out from under the altar and is killed by a servant; the weasel's mate revives its dead companion by placing a red flower it its mouth; Guildeluec has the flower retrieved and uses it to bring Guilliadun back to life; Guildeluec hears her story and then tells her that Eliduc believes she's dead but still loves her; she then tells Guilliadun that she will allow her and Eliduc to be together; Guildeluec joins a convent; Eluduc marries Guilliadun and lives happily with her for many years; in his old age Eliduc founds a monastery and joins it while Guilliadun joins the same convent where Guildeluec lives; all three spend their last years in the love and service of God
    
    
• influence of Marie de France's lais on English romances like Sir Orfeo, Sir Launfal (14th c.), and Chaucer's Canterbury Tales
  
  
• Marie de France was also author of fables, Ysopets, in the style of Aesop and of the moral tale L'Espurgatoire Seint Patriz ("St Patrick's Purgatory")